Although there is consensus among scholars regarding the fundamental sequence of major chronological periods in ancient Egypt, the precise dates and relationships remain a matter of ongoing research.
Work in progress!
Introduction
Ancient records are frequently incomplete, containing errors or omissions, which can make their reliability questionable. Timekeeping was essential for anticipating the seasons and planning agricultural activities such as planting and harvesting. Additionally, specific times of the year were associated with religious ceremonies and festivals. Keeping track of when markets, fairs, and gatherings were planned helped to create a sense of community and shared understanding of time.
Nevertheless, it is frequently uncertain which type of calendar was employed and whether the presented information is to be regarded as reliable. It is notable that historical dates which have survived were often documented decades or even centuries after the event in question took place. It is similarly conceivable that such sources may have been corrupted, invented, untrue, or may have been altered or added subsequent to the event in question in order to align with a specific narrative.
As we move further back in time, the accuracy of dates inevitably declines. Given the absence of precise chronological standards in the past, it is only possible to make the most approximate of estimates. The lack of contemporaneous recording methods and a lack of understanding of historical time further complicate the matter. The precision of timekeeping in ancient times was not as exact as it is today. However, the study of astronomy was of great importance to many ancient civilisations, as it enabled them to keep track of time. The accurate dating of historical events is a challenging task for modern historians, due to the lack of a unified system for numbering years in the ancient world. In order to create a comprehensive timeline of events, evidence is collected from a variety of sources, including historical records, inscriptions, and archaeological finds.
The Egyptian solar year was 365 days divided into 12 months of 30 days each, plus five added days at the end of the year. The discrepancy between their 365-day calendar and the actual solar year was well known to the ancient Egyptians. They did not attempt to synchronise their calendar perfectly with the solar year, but accepted this discrepancy as a natural phenomenon.
To adjust their calendar they used the Sothic cycle as a long-term framework to keep it aligned with the seasons. This cycle was based
on the rising of Sirius (Greek:
The concept of chronology in the ancient world is not as straightforward as it is today, due to the presence of several inherent complications. In order to establish a chronology, a number of different techniques must be employed.
Regnal years
Administrative documents, production dates, and inscriptions were dated by the regnal year: In the reign of King Usermaatra, Year 39, month 7, day 22. Regnal years were counted from the day of accession of the king, thus not the same as a civil year.
Synchronisms
Ancient cultures used a wide variety of calendars, the simplest and most common being the lunar calendar. Because each culture had its own system, it is very difficult to convert and synchronise dates between two or more calendars, especially as the accuracy of the records was of varying quality – where such records exist at all. For example, diplomatic correspondence between kings was unearthed in the ruins of Akhetaten, buried when the ephemeral capital was razed and abandoned. The correspondence provides the names of the kings of two kingdoms and establishes a chronological starting point, thereby allowing the texts to be synchronised to a specific time.
King lists
Documented sequences of kings are very rare, and dated chronological lists even more so, as chronology in the modern sense was unheard of in the ancient world. One of the earliest known lists is Ptolemy's Canon of Kings, a chronological list of the Kings of Mesopotamia, collected in the 3rd century BC from older sources. The foundation of Egyptian chronology is provided by the very fragmentary Turin King List, a papyrus roll from the 12th century BC detailing the order and duration of the reigns of more than 200 Egyptian pharaohs.
Temple and tomb inscriptions frequently include the date of the ruling pharaoh when it was made. However, but this only indicate a minimum
duration of that reign. For instance, the Battle of Kadesh inscription begin with: “Year 5, third month of the harvest season, day 9, under the Majesty of Ramesses II ...”
Furthermore, labelled goods (wine jars etc.) often included the date of production in a similar manner.
Genealogies
Tombs of highly ranked officials often included a record of their ancestry and under which king they served. Furthermore, administrative documents allows scholars to map out families that can verify or act as controls for disputed or lesser known reigns.
Archaeological records
Archaeology provides an invaluable archive of human history, offering tangible evidence that links objects, structures, and other cultural materials to specific time periods and civilisations. The application of scientific techniques, such as radiocarbon dating, enhances the accuracy of these records by establishing more precise timelines, thus enabling archaeologists to situate discoveries within a broader historical context.
Astronomical records
The astronomical records was a crucial step in the planning and preparation of significant future events, including festivals dedicated to the gods and agricultural activities. Modern techniques has enabled the accurate dating of descriptions of ancient astronomical occurrences.
Ptolemy's Canon of Kings
Ptolemy of Alexandria, who flourished in the second century CE under
Roman rule, compiled a list of kings noting the length of their reigns. It is probable that this list was based on even older lists. This
important list of Babylonian and Egyptian kings was used by ancient astronomers as a practical manner of dating astronomical events. Known
as Ptolemy’s Canon, it has been preserved by multiple succeeding authors, who often supplemented
it with up-to-date knowledge from their own times. Historians generally regard the Canon to be accurate, and it forms the foundation of ancient
chronology from 747 BC forward, to which all other datings are synchronised.
The Canon is divided into four sections:
20 Babylonian Kings were followed by 10 Persian Kings (538–332 BC) that conquered Mesopotamia. The list was continued by astronomers
in Alexandria, detailing first the Macedonian Kings (331–305 BC), followed by the 10 Ptolemies of Egypt (304–30 BC).
| Name (in Greek) | Transliteration | Reign | Total | Year (BC) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Babylonian Kings | ||||
| Ναβονασσάρου | Nabonassaros | 14 | 14 | 747–734 |
| Ναδίου | Nadios | 2 | 16 | 733–732 |
| Χινζηρος και Πώρου | Khinzer and Poros | 5 | 21 | 731–727 |
| Ιλουλαίου | Iloulaios | 5 | 26 | 726–722 |
| Μαρδοκεμπάδου | Mardokempados | 12 | 38 | 721–710 |
| Αρκεανου | Sargon II (Arkeanos) | 6 | 43 | 709–704 |
| άβασίλευτα | Without king | 2 | 45 | 704–703 |
| Βιλίβου | Bilibos | 3 | 48 | 702–700 |
| Απαραναδίου | Aparanadios | 6 | 54 | 699–694 |
| Ρηγεβήλου | Rhegebelos | 1 | 55 | 693 |
| Μεσησιμορδάκου | Mesesimordakos | 4 | 59 | 692–689 |
| άβασίλευτα | Without king | 8 | 67 | 688–681 |
| Aσαραδινού | Esarhaddon (Asaradinos) | 13 | 80 | 680–668 |
| Σαοσδουχίνου | Saosdouchinos | 20 | 100 | 667–648 |
| Κινηλαδάνου | Kineladanos | 22 | 122 | 647–626 |
| Ναβοττολασσάρου | Nabopolassaros | 21 | 143 | 625–605 |
| Ναβοκολασσάρου | Nabokolassaros (Nebuchadnezzar II) | 43 | 186 | 604–562 |
| Iλλοαρουδάμου | Illoaroudamos | 2 | 188 | 561–560 |
| Νηριγασολασσάρου | Nerigasolassaros | 4 | 192 | 559–556 |
| Ναβοναδίου | Nabonadios | 17 | 209 | 555–539 |
| Persian Kings | ||||
| Κυρου | Kyros (Cyrus the Great) | 9 | 218 | 538–530 |
| Καμβύσου | Kambysos (Cambyses II) | 8 | 226 | 529–522 |
| Δαρείου πρώτου | Dareios the First (Darius the Great) | 36 | 262 | 521–486 |
| Ξερζου | Xerxes (Xerxes I) | 21 | 283 | 485–465 |
| Aρταζερξου πρώτου | Artaxerxes I | 41 | 324 | 464–424 |
| Δαρείου δευτέρου | Dareios (Darius II) | 19 | 343 | 423–405 |
| Αρταξερξου δευτέρου | Artaxerxes II | 46 | 389 | 404–359 |
| Ωχου | Ochos (Artaxerxes III) | 21 | 410 | 358–338 |
| Αρωγού | Arogos (Artaxerxes IV) | 2 | 412 | 337–336 |
| Δαρείου τρίτου | Dareios the Third (Darius III) | 4 | 416 | 335–332 |
| Αλεξάνδρου Μακεδόνος | Alexander the Great | 8 | 424 | 331–324 |
| Macedonian Kings | ||||
| Φιλίππου | Philippos (Philip III Arridaeus) | 7 | 7 | 323–317 |
| Αλεξάνδρου ετερου | The other Alexandros (Alexander IV) | 12 | 19 | 316–305 |
| Πτολεμαίου Λάγου | Ptolemaios Lagos (Ptolemy I Soter) | 20 | 39 | 304–285 |
| Φιλαδελφου | Ptolemy II Philadelphus | 38 | 77 | 284–247 |
| Ευεργέτου | Ptolemy III Euergetes | 25 | 102 | 246–222 |
| Φιλοπάτορος | Ptolemy IV Philopator | 17 | 119 | 221–205 |
| Επιφανούς | Ptolemy V Epiphanes | 24 | 143 | 204–181 |
| Φιλομητορος | Ptolemy VI Philometor | 35 | 178 | 180–146 |
| Ευεργέτου δευτέρου | Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II | 29 | 207 | 145–117 |
| Σωτηρος | Ptolemy IX Soter | 36 | 243 | 116–81 |
| Διονύσου νέου | Ptolemy XII Auletes Dionysos Neos | 29 | 272 | 80–52 |
| Κλεοπάτρας | Kleopatra (Cleopatra VII) | 22 | 294 | 51–30 |
The Astronomical Tablet of Nebuchadnezzar II comprises a sequence of astronomical observations made during the king's 37th year. Modern astronomers studying this data have concluded that the only year within centuries that fits the data is 568/67 BC. Therefore, Nebuchadnezzar's first year of his reign was in 604/03 B.C., which corresponds perfectly with the Canon. There are several biblical references to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II that provide a link with Hebrew chronology, which together with other contemporary king lists further confirm the validity of Ptolemy's sequence of kings, providing reasonably accurate dates as going back to 747 BC.
The Julian calendar
When administering the rapidly expanding Roman Empire, it became clear that a calendar was needed to coordinate the many local calendars in use. This calendar would be used throughout the Empire. The Romans recognised the Julian calendar's greater accuracy compared to the old Egyptian calendar and adopted it as their primary calendar, which later became the standard for most of the Western world. The Julian calendar added an extra day every four years.
Like the Egyptians, the Romans did not number each year sequentially from a specific year, but instead differentated years by naming the two elected consuls in Rome serving a specific year. For example: in the Year of Braccus and Cassius, the Consuls were Cassius and Braccus, and if Cassius served multiple times, the second time his name would have an additional number, Braccus and Cassius II, the third time, Probus and Cassius III, and so on.
The lists of the elected consuls, the Fasti consulares, were originally engraved on marble tablets erected in the Roman forum, and survive in the writings of several historical accounts, along with fragments from various places throughout the Empire.
In the middle of the first century BC, the Roman scholar Terentius Varro established a system that place the traditional foundation of Rome as year 1 ab urbe condita (A.U.C.). The year of the founding of the Republic was available from the fasti, and Varro simply added seven generations before that, counting each generation as 35 years (7 × 35 = 245). From Cicero we learn that according to the annals of the Greeks, Rome was founded in the second year of the seventh Olympiad.
Eratosthenes of Cyrene established the use of the Olympiad and the individually numbered years between them in the third century BC. Olympic dates survive in Eusebius' Chronicon, which attempted to reconcile the events of biblical history with classical historical material, and was only used for historical purposes, never for everyday use. The second part of Chronicon, the Canons, puts the historical material into a parallel timeline, listing the reigning rulers of each nation side-by-side, for every year. Although the original is lost, Jerome's Latin translation written around 380 in Constantinople preserve the chonological tables.
The Anno Domini (AD) system we still use today was developed by the monk Dionysius Exiguus in 525 AD (A.U.C. 1278), as a result of his work on calculating the date of Easter, but was not widely used until the 9th century. He produced tables with a 19-year cycle for calculating Easter but also years since the birth of Christ, which is the basis of the AD system:
Nineteen year cycle of Dionysius (Cyclus decemnovennalis Dionysii)
First Argumentum. On the years of Christ. If you want to find out which year it is since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ, compute fifteen times 34, yielding 510; to these always add the correction 12, yielding 522; also add the indiction of the year you want, say in the consulship of Probus Junior, a 3, yielding 525 years altogether. These are the years since the incarnation of the Lord.
Consulting Dionysius’ Easter table, which includes years in the era of the Roman emperor Diocletian, we see that Probus was consul in the year 241 of Diocletian. Subtracting 241 from 525 gives 284, the year in which Diocletian became emperor.
Although Moses was a first-hand witness to what he wrote, the Bible is not very helpful as it does not name the Pharaohs in the time of Moses and Joseph. However, a few Late Period pharaohs were named: Shishak (1 Kings 11:40), Tirhakah (2 Kings 19:9), Hophra (Jeremiah 44.30), and Neco (2 Kings 23:29).
Syncronizing events and calendars
So, with that out of the way, how do we go about to establish a chronological link between today and a pharaoh? We could simply look it up in a book on the subject, but that does not actually teach us anything. Instead, we will trace the path and then actually walk that path.
Chronology
- 2024
The current year.
- 1582
The Gregorian calendar adopted. All dates before this use the Julian calendar.
- 643
Arabic-Greek Papyrus PERF 558 is dated by Islamic (1 Jumada al-Thani 22 AH) and Coptic (30 Baramudah I, 360 AM) dates, corresponding to 25 April 643.
- 525
Dionysius developed Anno Domini in 525 = A.U.C. 1278 = 241 Anno Martyrum.
- 284
The Alexandrian calendar used by the Coptic church start in 284 AD, and is year 1 Anno Martyrum – the year Diocletian became Roman Emperor.
- 27 BC
Octavian becomes Augustus, the first Roman emperor.
- 30 BC
The last pharaoh of Egypt, Cleopatra, is defeated by Octavian and commits suicide.
- 509 BC
Rome becomes a republic = A.U.C. 245.
- 747 BC
The first Babylonian king Nabonassaros of Ptolemy's Canon of Kings started his reign 696 years before Cleopatra started hers.
- 753 BC
The traditional foundation of Rome = A.U.C. 1.
- 763 BC
June 15 solar eclipse in Sicily is used to fix the chronology of the Ancient Near East. (Diod. 20.5.5)
- 776 BC
First Olympiad.
Chronology becomes increasingly unreliable the further back in time you go, as records become scarce or sketchy. This is not to say that it is impossible – historians are some very clever people and they have managed to find very elusive evidence to form a coherent and working chronology for very ancient times. However, it is not always possible or necessary to establish exact dates.
Cleopatra, the last of the Pharaohs
We know from Plutarch’s Life of Antony that during Octavian's fifth consulship, which he shared with Antony, (Plut. Ant. 11; Plut. Ant. 30), Octavian defeated Cleopatra and Antony in Egypt. This was before he was given the title Augustus, which is clear as he was still known simply as (Imperator) Caesar.
The Fasti Capitolini have a gap for the years around the fifth consulship, but the The Chronograph of 354 records it in AUC 725, but with Appuleius, as do the Fasti of Hydatius, but with Pulchro (alt. Appuleius). This is typical of antiquity - conflicting and/or incomplete information.
The Chronicon Paschale tells us that Augustus (Octavian) landed in Egypt AUC 727 (Anno Mundi 5477) and halted the reign of the Ptolemies, which had lasted 296 years, which according to Ptolemy's Canon of Kings lasted 294 years.
As we have learned above, AUC 1278 = 525 AD. There are 553 years between AUC 725 and AUC 1278. Subtracting 525 AD from those 553 years yield -28. Since there was no year zero, we have to increase it by one, and thus we arrive at -29 = 29 BC ≈ 30 BC, the date commonly used by historians.
All Roman dates, if they are complete and reliable, can be directly expressed in Julian years. All the other datings of ancient chronology are linked to our reckoning by direct or indirect synchronisms with Roman dates.
1
Ptolemy's Canon at livius.org.3
List of preserved consuls in the mid-16th century manuscript Codex Vindobonensis 3416 in Vienna, aka. The Chronography of 354.4
Cornell, Tim. J., 1995. The beginnings of Rome. London: Routledge. p. 73.5
Cicero, The Republic, 2.18
https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/chronology/